Chemical assessment of mycotoxin contaminants and veterinary residues in Costa Rican animal feed

Leiva, Astrid; Méndez, Geovanna; Rodríguez, César; Molina, Andrea; Granados-Chinchilla, Fabio

doi:10.1186/s40550-019-0075-8

Food Safety and Risk

Table 5 Prevalence of mycotoxin contamination presented by feed matrix^a

From: Chemical assessment of mycotoxin contaminants and veterinary residues in Costa Rican animal feed

Average ± standard deviation	Maximum mycotoxin concentration ± U_x/x, μg kg⁻¹	Minimum mycotoxin concentration ± U_x/x, μg kg^− 1	Number of samples above recommended guideline/legislative threshold	Prevalence, %[Samples over limit of detection, (n)]
Feed ingredients (n = number of events over limit of detection)
Rice meal (n = 2)
Zearalenone (2000 μg kg^− 1)
109.51 ± 103.13	212.64 ± 25.98	6.38 ± 0.78	0	100.00 [2]
Forage (n = 9)
Aflatoxin G₂ (50 μg kg^− 1 total aflatoxins)^c
1.54 ± 0.24	1.78 ± 0.22	1.30 ± 0.16	0	22.22 [2]
Citrinin
18.28 ± 11.58	29.86 ± 3.65	6.71 ± 0.82	0	22.22 [2]
α-zearalenone
13.76 ± 1.17	14.93 ± 1.82	12.60 ± 1.54	0	22.22 [2]
Aflatoxin B₂ (50 μg kg⁻¹ total aflatoxins)^c
3.01 ± 1.57	4.58 ± 0.56	0.87 ± 0.11	0	33.33 [3]
Wheat Middlings (n = 11)
3-acetyldeoxynivalenol
1630.85 ± 1605.71	3566.81 ± 435.83	2465.29 ± 301.24	0	18.18 [2]
Aflatoxin B₁ (50 μg kg^− 1 total aflatoxins)^c
0.055 ± 0.038	0.093 ± 0.011	0.016 ± 0.002	0	18.18 [2]
Enniatin B
3016.05 ± 550.76	3566.81 ± 435.83	2465.29 ± 301.24	0	18.18 [2]
Enniatin B₁
23.91 ± 19.48	43.39 ± 5.30	4.43 ± 0.54	0	18.18 [2]
Fumonisin B₁ (60,000 μg kg⁻¹ FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
707.74 ± 282.62	1043.86 ± 127.55	352.39 ± 43.06	0	27.27 [3]
Soybean meal (n = 14)
Diacetoxyscirpenol
324.61 ± 22.83	347.43 ± 42.45	301.78 ± 36.88	0	14.29 [2]
HT-2 toxin (500 μg kg⁻¹ sum T-2/HT-2) ^c
97.03 ± 76.52	173.55 ± 21.21	20.50 ± 2.51	0	14.29 [2]
Ochratoxin B
108.60 ± 71.90	180.50 ± 22.06	36.69 ± 4.48	0	14.29 [2]
T-2 toxin
24.37 ± 19.75	44.12 ± 5.39	4.61 ± 0.56	0	14.29 [2]
Deoxynivalenol (8000 μg kg⁻¹)^c
88.49 ± 127.88	364.11 ± 44.49	1.56 ± 0.19	0	42.86 [6]
Corn meal (n = 40)
Aflatoxin G₁ (50 μg kg^− 1 total aflatoxins)^c
0.40 ± 0.13	0.53 ± 0.07	0.27 ± 0.03	0	5.00 [2]
Deoxynivalenol (8000 μg kg^− 1)^c
18.51 ± 2.84	21.35 ± 2.61	15.67 ± 1.91	0	5.00 [2]
Nivalenol
95.23 ± 70.59	165.82 ± 20.26	24.64 ± 3.01	0	5.00 [2]
Ochratoxin B
6.43 ± 0.15	6.57 ± 0.80	6.28 ± 0.77	0	5.00 [2]
α-zearalenone
38.43 ± 0.15	76.61 ± 9.36	0.26 ± 0.03	0	5.00 [2]
15-acetyldeoxynivalenol
103.53 ± 129.77	286.92 ± 35.06	6.10 ± 0.74	0	7.50 [3]
Aflatoxin B₁ (50 μg kg^− 1 total aflatoxins)^c
0.93 ± 0.14	1.13 ± 0.14	0.82 ± 0.10	0	7.50 [3]
Zearalenone (2000 μg kg^− 1)
917.53 ± 969.07	2287.31 ± 279.49	194.79 ± 23.80		7.50 [3]
3-acetyldeoxynivalenol
685.86 ± 388.15	965.07 ± 117.92	16.20 ± 1.98	0	10.00 [4]
Fumonisin B₁ (60,000 μg kg^− 1 FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
1050.06 ± 906.51	2926.98 ± 357.65	226.56 ± 27.68	0	20.00 [8]
Fumonisin B₂
578.55 ± 669.59	2308.56 ± 282.56	106.59 ± 13.02	0	25.00 [10]
Compound feed
Shrimp feed (n = 2)
Sterigmatocystin
908.81 ± 337.73	1246.54 ± 152.32	571.09 ± 69.78	0	100.00 [2]
Ingredients^b†: corn meal (max 15%), soybean meal (max 75%), DDGS, palm kernel meal (max 30%), wheat middlings (max 20%), rice meal and bran (max 15%), soybean hulls.
Sheep feed (n = 6)
Fumonisin B₁ (5000 μg kg^− 1 FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
282.62 ± 118.66	347.28 ± 42.44	109.95 ± 13.44	0	33.33 [2]
Fumonisin B₂ (5000 μg kg^− 1 FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
120.72 ± 40.23	160.95 ± 19.67	80.49 ± 9.84	0	33.33 [2]
Zearalenone (500 μg kg^− 1) ^c
299.24 ± 50.63	349.87 ± 42.75	248.61 ± 30.38	0	33.33 [2]
Ingredients^b†: corn meal (max 45%), Soybean meal (max 13%), DDGS (max 20%), palm kernel meal, wheat middlings (max 25%), rice bran, soybean hulls (max 20%).
Pet food (dog dry food, n = 8)
Aflatoxin G₁
3.10 ± 0.77	3.86 ± 0.47	2.33 ± 0.28	0	25.00 [2]
Fumonisin B₁ (5000 μg kg^− 1 FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
2007.52 ± 1808.45	4554.36 ± 556.51	531.75 ± 64.98	0	37.50 [3]
Fumonisin B₂ (5000 μg kg^− 1 FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
2163.60 ± 1106.76	1056.84 ± 137.85	3270.36 ± 426.57	0	37.50 [3]
Ingredients^{b †}: corn meal (max 50%), DDGS (max 25%), palm kernel meal, wheat middlings (max 20%), rice meal and bran (max 20%).
Poultry feed (n = 16)
Aflatoxin G₁ (20 μg kg^− 1 total aflatoxins) ^c
0.78 ± 0.85	1.97 ± 0.24	0.05 ± 0.01	0	18.75 [3]
Deoxynivalenol (5000 μg kg^− 1)^c
28.34 ± 13.90	42.24 ± 5.16	14.44 ± 1.76	0	12.50 [3]
Fumonisin B₂ (20,000 μg kg^− 1 FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
1897.00 ± 2898.09	6911.99 ± 844.59	72.19 ± 8.82	0	25.00 [4]
Fumonisin B₁ (20,000 μg kg^− 1 FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
471.74 ± 277.98	953.09 ± 116.46	88.97 ± 10.87	0	37.50 [6]
Ingredients^b†: corn meal (no restriction), soybean meal (no restriction), DDGS (max 10–15%), palm kernel meal (3–3.5%), wheat middlings (max 3–3.5%), rice bran and polishings (max 3–3.5%), soybean hulls (max 3–3.5%).
Calf feed (n = 24)
Deoxynivalenol (2000 μg kg^− 1)^c
31.48 ± 31.30	62.79 ± 7.67	0.20 ± 0.02	0	8.33 [2]
Enniatin B₁
36.28 ± 36.13	72.41 ± 8.85	0.15 ± 0.02	0	8.33 [2]
Enniatin B
586.63 ± 154.23	711.74 ± 86.97	369.35 ± 45.13	0	12.50 [3]
HT-2 toxin (500 μg kg^− 1 sum T-2/HT-2) ^c
88.15 ± 69.86	182.35 ± 22.28	15.28 ± 1.87	0	12.50 [3]
Fumonisin B₁ (20,000 μg kg^− 1 FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
446.45 ± 117.84	676.88 ± 82.71	293.22 ± 35.83	0	29.17 [7]
Fumonisin B₂ (20,000 μg kg^− 1 FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
615.73 ± 886.97	2773.27 ± 338.87	102.46 ± 12.52	0	29.17 [7]
Ingredients^b†: corn meal (no restriction), soybean meal (no restriction), DDGS (12–15%), palm kernel meal (max 10–15%), wheat middlings (max 10–20%), rice bran and polishings (max 10–20%), soybean hulls (max 10%), citrus pulp (10%).
Poultry layer feed (n = 28)
3-acetyldeoxynivalenol
166.14 ± 33.98	200.13 ± 24.45	132.16 ± 16.15	0	7.14 [2]
Aflatoxin G₁ (20 μg kg^− 1 total aflatoxins) ^c
0.47 ± 0.35	0.82 ± 0.10	0.12 ± 0.01	0	7.14 [2]
Zearalenone (250 μg kg^− 1) ^c
415.74 ± 140.17	555.91 ± 67.93	275.57 ± 33.67	2	7.14 [2]
Deoxynivalenol (5000 μg kg^− 1)
42.98 ± 7.38	50.36 ± 6.15	35.60 ± 4.35	0	7.14 [2]
HT-2 toxin (500 μg kg^− 1 sum T-2/HT-2) ^c
8.45 ± 6.11	16.81 ± 2.05	0.0017 ± 0.002	0	17.86 [5]
Fumonisin B₁ (20,000 μg kg^− 1 FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
446.65 ± 244.52	956.92 ± 116.93	173.01 ± 21.14	0	25.00 [7]
Fumonisin B₂ (20,000 μg kg^− 1 FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
657.81 ± 1079.21	3507.81 ± 428.62	124.39 ± 15.20	0	28.57 [8]
Ingredients^b†: corn meal (no restriction), soybean meal (no restriction), DDGS (max 10–15%), palm kernel meal (3–3.5%), wheat middlings (max 3–3.5%), rice bran and polishings (max 3–3.5%), soybean hulls (max 3–3.5%).
Beef cattle feed (n = 51)
Aflatoxin B₂ (50 μg kg^− 1 total aflatoxins)^c
11.43 ± 10.96	22.39 ± 2.74	0.46 ± 0.06	1	3.92 [2]
Aflatoxin G₁
2.08 ± 1.79	1.94 ± 1.86	3.79 ± 0.46	0	3.92 [2]
Zearalenone (500 μg kg^− 1) ^c
281.79 ± 134.83	416.62 ± 50.91	146.95 ± 17.96	0	3.92 [2]
15-acetyldeoxynivalenol
23.40 ± 17.96	41.36 ± 5.05	5.44 ± 0.66	0	3.92 [2]
Deoxynivalenol (5000 μg kg^− 1)^c
26.21 ± 6.69	32.90 ± 4.02	19.52 ± 2.39	0	3.92 [2]
Enniatin B
638.80 ± 279.21	1115.50 ± 136.30	239.59 ± 29.28	0	9.80 [5]
Enniatin B₁
25.09 ± 6.86	34.56 ± 4.22	18.50 ± 2.26	0	5.88 [3]
α-zearalenone
20.37 ± 8.41	32.24 ± 3.94	13.83 ± 1.69	0	5.88 [3]
Ochratoxin A (250 μg kg^− 1) ^c
176.26 ± 171.92	525.17 ± 64.17	12.38 ± 1.51	2	15.69 [8]
Fumonisin B₁ (50,000 μg kg^− 1 FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
554.52 ± 374.96	1635.38 ± 199.83	227.42 ± 27.79	0	21.57 [11]
Fumonisin B₂ (50,000 μg kg^− 1 FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
570.07 ± 816.10	3013.12 ± 368.18	38.27 ± 4.68	0	21.57 [11]
Ingredients^b†: corn meal (no restriction), soybean meal (no restriction), DDGS (12–15%), palm kernel meal (max 10–15%), wheat middlings (max 10–20%), rice bran and polishings (max 10–20%), soybean hulls (max 10%), citrus pulp (10%).
Swine feed (lactating and gestating sows and pig grower, n = 54)
Aflatoxin G₁ (20 μg kg^− 1 total aflatoxins) ^c
2.60 ± 0.40	3.00 ± 0.37	2.20 ± 0.27	0	3.70 [2]
Aflatoxin G₂
11.54 ± 11.41	22.95 ± 2.80	0.13 ± 0.02	1	3.70 [2]
Deoxynivalenol (900 μg kg^− 1)
83.85 ± 12.58	96.43 ± 11.78	71.27 ± 8.71	0	3.70 [2]
Enniatin B
1456.62 ± 1139.02	2595.64 ± 317.17	317.59 ± 38.81	0	3.70 [2]
Ochratoxin A (50 μg kg^− 1) ^c
90.03 ± 86.31	176.34 ± 21.55	3.72 ± 0.46	1	3.70 [2]
T-2 toxin (500 μg kg^− 1 sum T-2/HT-2) ^c
26.27 ± 13.20	39.47 ± 4.82	13.06 ± 1.60	0	3.70 [2]
α-zearalenone
183.64 ± 89.11	272.74 ± 33.33	94.53 ± 11.55	0	3.70 [2]
Zearalenone (100 μg kg^− 1) ^c
3413.07 ± 3105.16	6518.23 ± 796.47	307.91 ± 37.62	2	3.70 [2]
15-acetyldeoxynivalenol
21.11 ± 21.95	51.81 ± 6.33	1.74 ± 0.21	0	5.56 [3]
3-acetyldeoxynivalenol
97.43 ± 108.61	279.19 ± 34.11	6.84 ± 0.84	0	5.56 [3]
HT-2 toxin (500 μg kg^− 1 sum T-2/HT-2) ^c
24.02 ± 9.15	36.28 ± 4.43	14.31 ± 1.75	0	5.56 [3]
Fumonisin B₁ (5000 μg kg^− 1 FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
701.61 ± 718.91	2715.10 ± 331.76	233.69 ± 28.55	0	25.93 [14]
Fumonisin B₂ (5000 μg kg^− 1 FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
1395.61 ± 2149.99	8019.99 ± 979.98	103.26 ± 12.62	1	25.93 [14]
Ingredients^b†: corn meal (no restriction), soybean meal (no restriction), DDGS (max 10%), palm kernel meal (max 10%), wheat middlings (max 20–25%), rice bran and polishing (max 20–25%), soybean hulls (no restriction).
Dairy cattle feed (n = 186)
Aflatoxin B₁ (50 μg kg^− 1 total aflatoxins)^c
0.15 ± 0.04	0.19 ± 0.02	0.11 ± 0.01	0	1.07 [2]
Neosolaniol
57.14 ± 7.61	64.75 ± 7.91	49.53 ± 6.05	0	1.07 [2]
Ochratoxin B
16.41 ± 4.04	20.45 ± 2.50	12.37 ± 1.51	0	1.07 [2]
Sterigmatocystin
387.83 ± 57.81	445.63 ± 54.45	330.02 ± 40.33	0	1.07 [2]
β-zearalenone
499.65 ± 271.62	771.27 ± 94.24	228.03 ± 27.86	0	1.07 [2]
15-acetyldeoxynivalenol
29.94 ± 8.99	38.38 ± 4.69	17.49 ± 2.14	0	1.62 [3]
3-acetyldeoxynivalenol
159.61 ± 145.15	352.24 ± 43.04	1.88 ± 0.23	0	1.62 [3]
Aflatoxin G₂
1.43 ± 1.32	3.49 ± 0.43	0.24 ± 0.03	0	2.15 [4]
Citrinin
21.86 ± 19.03	52.48 ± 6.41	3.51 ± 0.43	0	2.15 [4]
Enniatin B₁
58.67 ± 29.56	104.91 ± 12.82	27.14 ± 3.32	0	2.69 [5]
Ochratoxin A (250 μg kg^− 1) ^c
50.99 ± 56.73	158.70 ± 19.39	3.67 ± 0.45	0	2.69 [5]
Deoxynivalenol
25.87 ± 26.44	82.60 ± 10.09	0.75 ± 0.09	0	3.22 [6]
Aflatoxin G₁
2.95 ± 1.31	5.75 ± 0.70	1.60 ± 0.19	0	3.76 [7]
T-2 toxin (500 μg kg^− 1 sum T-2/HT-2) ^c
47.19 ± 44.97	137.81 ± 16.84	1.67 ± 0.20	0	4.30 [8]
HT-2 toxin
60.14 ± 88.86	303.22 ± 37.05	5.02 ± 0.61	0	5.38 [10]
α-zearalenone
38.05 ± 24.95	96.21 ± 11.76	8.40 ± 1.03	0	5.38 [10]
Enniatin B
477.01 ± 259.96	914.05 ± 111.69	147.78 ± 18.06	0	6.99 [13]
Zearalenone (250 μg kg^− 1) ^c
294.51 ± 286.20	1107.81 ± 135.37	54.54 ± 6.66	3	8.06 [15]
Fumonisin B₁ (50,000 μg kg^− 1 FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
460.62 ± 508.11	3133.88 ± 382.93	124.77 ± 15.25	0	19.89 [37]
Fumonisin B₂ (50,000 μg kg^− 1 FB₁ + FB₂) ^c
685.45 ± 1321.61	8088.95 ± 988.40	52.76 ± 6.45	0	24.73 [46]
Ingredients^b†: corn meal (no restriction), soybean meal (no restriction), DDGS (12–15%), palm kernel meal (max 10–15%), wheat middlings (max 10–20%), rice bran and polishings (max 10–20%), soybean hulls (max 10%), citrus pulp (10%).

^aOnly samples with n > 1 and toxins with more than one incident were included
^bPlant-derived constituents according to guaranteed labels, data in parenthesis indicates maximum inclusion recommended for each ingredient during feed formulation. ^†FAO (2018), INRA (2012), FEDIAF (2016), Martínez Marín (2008), NRC (2001), Rostagno et al. (2017)
^cData in parenthesis indicates maximum permitted or recommended toxin concentrations (Pettersson 2012)

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